When we choose to move, the action is controlled by the conscious brain using a collection of learned movements. For the movement to progress successfully, the athlete requires information feedback.
Types of skill
There are a number of different types of skills:
Cognitive - or intellectual skills that require thought processes
Perceptual - interpretation of presented information
Motor - movement and muscle control
Perceptual motor - involve the thought, interpretation and movement skills
How do we teach a new skill?
The teaching of a new skill can be achieved by various methods:
Verbal instructions
Demonstration
Video
Diagrams
Photo sequences
The Learning Phases - Fitts & Posner
Fitts and Posner (1967) [3] suggested that the learning process is sequential and that we move through specific phases as we learn. There are three stages to learning a new skill:
Cognitive phase - Identification and development of the component parts of the skill - involves formation of a mental picture of the skill
Associative phase - Linking the component parts into a smooth action - involves practicing the skill and using feedback to perfect the skill
Autonomous phase - Developing the learned skill so that it becomes automatic - involves little or no conscious thought or attention whilst performing the skill - not all performers reach this stage
The leaning of physical skills requires the relevant movements to be assembled, component by component, using feedback to shape and polish them into a smooth action. Rehearsal of the skill must be done regularly and correctly.
Schmidt's Schema Theory
Schmidt's theory (Schmidt 1975) [2] was based on the view that actions are not stored rather we refer to abstract relationships or rules about movement. Schmidt's schema is based on the theory that that every time a movement is conducted four pieces of information are gathered:
the initial conditions - starting point
certain aspects of the motor action - how fast, how high
the results of the action - success or failure
the sensory consequences of the action - how it felt
Relationships between these items of information are used to construct a recall schema and a recognition schema. The Recall schema is based on initial conditions and the results and is used to generate a motor program to address a new goal. The recognition schema is based on sensory actions and the outcome.
Adam's Closed Loop Theory
Adam's theory (Adams 1971) [1] has two elements:
a. Perceptual trace - a reference model acquired through practice
b. Memory trace - responsible for initiating the movement
The key feature of this theory is the role of feedback.
a. Analyse the reference model actions, the result of those actions and the desired goals
b. Refine the reference model to produce the required actions to achieve the desired goals
Bandura's Social Learning Theory
There are three core concepts of social learning theory
1. people can learn through observation
2. mental states are an essential part of this process
3. it will not necessarily result in a change of behaviour
In Bandura et al. (1961) [4] studies children observed an adult acting aggressively toward a doll. When the children were later allowed to play with the doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed.
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:
1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behaviour
2. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behaviour
3. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviours in books, films, television programs, or online media
Kolb's Learning Cycle
Kolb (1984) [5] developed a theory of experiential learning that can give us a useful model by which to develop our learning. The model comprises of four stages:
Concrete Experience - doing or having an experience
Reflective Observation - reviewing & reflecting on the experience
Abstract Conceptualisation - concluding & learning from the experience
Active Experimentation - planning & trying out what you have learned
Whitmore Learning Cycle
Whitmore (1984) [6] identified that our learning cycle generally takes us through four stages:
Unconscious incompetence - no understanding
Conscious incompetence - low performance, recognition of flaws and weak areas
Conscious competence - improved performance, conscious effort
Unconscious competence - higher performance, natural automatic effort
Transfer of learning
Transfer of learning can take place in the following ways:
1. Skill to skill
this is where a skill developed in one sport has an influence on a skill in another sport. If the influence is on a new skill being developed then this is said to be proactive and if the influence is on a previously learned skill then this is said to be retroactive
2. Theory to practice
the transfer of theoretical skills into practice
3. Training to competition
the transfer of skills developed in training into the competition situation
Effects of transfer of learning
The effects of transfer can be:
1. Negative
Where a skill developed in one sport hinders the performance of a skill in another sport
2. Zero
Where a skill in one sport has no impact on the learning of a new sport
3. Positive
Where a skill developed in one sport helps the performance of a skill in another sport
4. Direct
Where a skill can be taken directly from sport to another
5. Bilateral
Transfer of a skill from side of the body to the other - use left and right
6. Unequal
A skill developed in one sport helps another sport more than the reverse
How do we assess skill performance?
Initially, compare visual feedback from the athlete's movement with the technical model to be achieved. Athletes should be encouraged to evaluate their own performance. In assessing the performance of an athlete, consider the following points:
1. Are the basics correct?
2. Is the direction of the movement correct?
3. Is the rhythm correct?
It is important to ask athletes to remember how it felt when correct examples of movement are demonstrated (kinaesthetic feedback).
Appropriate checklists/notes can be used to assist the coach in the assessment of an athlete's technique. The following are some examples:
a. Sprint Technique
b. Running Technique for the Middle Distance runner
How are faults caused?
Having assessed the performance and identified that there is a fault then you need to determine why it is happening. Faults can be caused by:
Incorrect understanding of the movement by the athlete
Poor physical abilities
Poor co-ordination of movement
Incorrect application of power
Lack of concentration
Inappropriate clothing or footwear
External factors e.g. weather conditions
Strategies and Tactics
Strategies are the plans we prepare in advance of a competition, which we hope will place an individual or team in a winning position. Tactics are how we put these strategies into action. Athletes in the associative phase of learning will not be able to cope with strategies, but the athlete in the autonomous phase should be able to apply strategies and tactics.
To develop strategies and tactics we need to know:
the strengths and weaknesses of the opposition
our own strengths and weaknesses
environmental factors
Referenced Material
1. ADAMS, J.A. (1971) A closed-loop theory of motor learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 3 (2), p. 111-150
2. SCHMIDT, R.A. (1975) A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychological Review, 82 (4), p. 225-260
3. FITTS, P.M. and POSNER, M.I. (1967) Human performance. Oxford, England: Brooks and Cole
4. BANDURA, A., ROSS, D., & ROSS, S. A. (1961) Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, p. 575-582.
5. KOLB, D.A. (1984) Experiential Learning experience as a source of learning and development. New Jersey, Prentice Hall
6. WHITMORE, J. (1996) Coaching for Performance. London, Nicholas Brealey
Types of skill
There are a number of different types of skills:
Cognitive - or intellectual skills that require thought processes
Perceptual - interpretation of presented information
Motor - movement and muscle control
Perceptual motor - involve the thought, interpretation and movement skills
How do we teach a new skill?
The teaching of a new skill can be achieved by various methods:
Verbal instructions
Demonstration
Video
Diagrams
Photo sequences
The Learning Phases - Fitts & Posner
Fitts and Posner (1967) [3] suggested that the learning process is sequential and that we move through specific phases as we learn. There are three stages to learning a new skill:
Cognitive phase - Identification and development of the component parts of the skill - involves formation of a mental picture of the skill
Associative phase - Linking the component parts into a smooth action - involves practicing the skill and using feedback to perfect the skill
Autonomous phase - Developing the learned skill so that it becomes automatic - involves little or no conscious thought or attention whilst performing the skill - not all performers reach this stage
The leaning of physical skills requires the relevant movements to be assembled, component by component, using feedback to shape and polish them into a smooth action. Rehearsal of the skill must be done regularly and correctly.
Schmidt's Schema Theory
Schmidt's theory (Schmidt 1975) [2] was based on the view that actions are not stored rather we refer to abstract relationships or rules about movement. Schmidt's schema is based on the theory that that every time a movement is conducted four pieces of information are gathered:
the initial conditions - starting point
certain aspects of the motor action - how fast, how high
the results of the action - success or failure
the sensory consequences of the action - how it felt
Relationships between these items of information are used to construct a recall schema and a recognition schema. The Recall schema is based on initial conditions and the results and is used to generate a motor program to address a new goal. The recognition schema is based on sensory actions and the outcome.
Adam's Closed Loop Theory
Adam's theory (Adams 1971) [1] has two elements:
a. Perceptual trace - a reference model acquired through practice
b. Memory trace - responsible for initiating the movement
The key feature of this theory is the role of feedback.
a. Analyse the reference model actions, the result of those actions and the desired goals
b. Refine the reference model to produce the required actions to achieve the desired goals
Bandura's Social Learning Theory
There are three core concepts of social learning theory
1. people can learn through observation
2. mental states are an essential part of this process
3. it will not necessarily result in a change of behaviour
In Bandura et al. (1961) [4] studies children observed an adult acting aggressively toward a doll. When the children were later allowed to play with the doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed.
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:
1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behaviour
2. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behaviour
3. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviours in books, films, television programs, or online media
Kolb's Learning Cycle
Kolb (1984) [5] developed a theory of experiential learning that can give us a useful model by which to develop our learning. The model comprises of four stages:
Concrete Experience - doing or having an experience
Reflective Observation - reviewing & reflecting on the experience
Abstract Conceptualisation - concluding & learning from the experience
Active Experimentation - planning & trying out what you have learned
Whitmore Learning Cycle
Whitmore (1984) [6] identified that our learning cycle generally takes us through four stages:
Unconscious incompetence - no understanding
Conscious incompetence - low performance, recognition of flaws and weak areas
Conscious competence - improved performance, conscious effort
Unconscious competence - higher performance, natural automatic effort
Transfer of learning
Transfer of learning can take place in the following ways:
1. Skill to skill
this is where a skill developed in one sport has an influence on a skill in another sport. If the influence is on a new skill being developed then this is said to be proactive and if the influence is on a previously learned skill then this is said to be retroactive
2. Theory to practice
the transfer of theoretical skills into practice
3. Training to competition
the transfer of skills developed in training into the competition situation
Effects of transfer of learning
The effects of transfer can be:
1. Negative
Where a skill developed in one sport hinders the performance of a skill in another sport
2. Zero
Where a skill in one sport has no impact on the learning of a new sport
3. Positive
Where a skill developed in one sport helps the performance of a skill in another sport
4. Direct
Where a skill can be taken directly from sport to another
5. Bilateral
Transfer of a skill from side of the body to the other - use left and right
6. Unequal
A skill developed in one sport helps another sport more than the reverse
How do we assess skill performance?
Initially, compare visual feedback from the athlete's movement with the technical model to be achieved. Athletes should be encouraged to evaluate their own performance. In assessing the performance of an athlete, consider the following points:
1. Are the basics correct?
2. Is the direction of the movement correct?
3. Is the rhythm correct?
It is important to ask athletes to remember how it felt when correct examples of movement are demonstrated (kinaesthetic feedback).
Appropriate checklists/notes can be used to assist the coach in the assessment of an athlete's technique. The following are some examples:
a. Sprint Technique
b. Running Technique for the Middle Distance runner
How are faults caused?
Having assessed the performance and identified that there is a fault then you need to determine why it is happening. Faults can be caused by:
Incorrect understanding of the movement by the athlete
Poor physical abilities
Poor co-ordination of movement
Incorrect application of power
Lack of concentration
Inappropriate clothing or footwear
External factors e.g. weather conditions
Strategies and Tactics
Strategies are the plans we prepare in advance of a competition, which we hope will place an individual or team in a winning position. Tactics are how we put these strategies into action. Athletes in the associative phase of learning will not be able to cope with strategies, but the athlete in the autonomous phase should be able to apply strategies and tactics.
To develop strategies and tactics we need to know:
the strengths and weaknesses of the opposition
our own strengths and weaknesses
environmental factors
Referenced Material
1. ADAMS, J.A. (1971) A closed-loop theory of motor learning. Journal of Motor Behavior, 3 (2), p. 111-150
2. SCHMIDT, R.A. (1975) A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychological Review, 82 (4), p. 225-260
3. FITTS, P.M. and POSNER, M.I. (1967) Human performance. Oxford, England: Brooks and Cole
4. BANDURA, A., ROSS, D., & ROSS, S. A. (1961) Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, p. 575-582.
5. KOLB, D.A. (1984) Experiential Learning experience as a source of learning and development. New Jersey, Prentice Hall
6. WHITMORE, J. (1996) Coaching for Performance. London, Nicholas Brealey
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