Learning is
acquiring new, or modifying existing, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may
involve synthesizing different types of information. The
ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines.
Progress over time tends to follow learning curves.
Learning is not compulsory, it is contextual. It does not happen all at once,
but builds upon and is shaped by what we already know. To that end, learning
may be viewed as a process, rather than a collection of factual and procedural
knowledge.
Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, schooling, or training. It may
be goal-oriented and may
be aided by motivation. The
study of how learning occurs is part of neuropsychology, educational psychology, learning theory, and pedagogy.
Learning may occur as a result of habituation or classical conditioning, seen in many animal species, or
as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen
only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur consciously or
without conscious awareness. There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally, in
which habituation has been
observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation,
indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and
primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development.
Play has been approached by several theorists as
the first form of learning. Children play, experiment with the world, learn the
rules, and learn to interact. Vygotsky agrees
that play is pivotal for children's development, since they make meaning of
their environment through play. The context of conversation based on moral
reasoning offers some proper observations on the responsibilities of parents.
TYPES OF
LEARNING
SIMPLE
NON-ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING
Habituation
In psychology, habituation is an example of
non-associative learning in which there is a progressive diminution of behavioral response
probability with repetition stimulus. An
animal first responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful
the animal reduces subsequent responses. One example of this can be seen in
small song birds—if a stuffed owl (or
similar predator) is put
into the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real
predator. Soon the birds react less, showing habituation. If another stuffed
owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds react
to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very
specific stimulus that is habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in
one place). Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal,
as well as the large protozoan Stentor
coeruleus.
Sensitisation
Sensitisation is an example of non-associative
learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated
administrations of a stimulus (Bell et
al., 1995). An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic
stimulation of peripheral nerves that will occur if a person rubs his arm
continuously. After a while, this stimulation will create a warm sensation that
will eventually turn painful. The pain is the result of the progressively
amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves warning the person that
the stimulation is harmful. Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive
as well as maladaptive learning processes in the organism.
Associative
learning
Associative learning is the process by which an
association between two stimuli or a behavior and a stimulus is learned. The
two forms of associative learning are classical and operant conditioning. In
the former a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly presented together with
a reflex eliciting stimuli until eventually the neutral stimulus will elicit a
response on its own. In operant conditioning a certain behavior is either
reinforced or punished which results in an altered probability that the
behavior will happen again. Honeybees display associative learning through the proboscis extension reflex paradigm.
Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the
occurrence and form of behavior. Operant
conditioning is distinguished from Pavlovian conditioning in that
operant conditioning uses reinforcement/punishment to alter an action-outcome
association. In contrast Pavlovian conditioning involves strengthening of the
stimulus-outcome association.
Elemental theories of associative learning argue
that concurrent stimuli tend to be perceived as separate units rather than
'holistically' (i.e. as a single unit)
Behaviorism is a psychological movement that seeks
to alter behavior by arranging the environment to elicit successful changes and
to arrange consequences to maintain or diminish a behavior. Behaviorists study
behaviors that can be measured and changed by the environment. However, they do
not deny that there are thought processes that interact with those behaviors.
Delayed discounting is the process of devaluing
rewards based on the delay of time they are presented. This process is thought
to be tied to impulsivity. Impulsivity is a core process for many behaviors
(e.g., substance abuse, problematic gambling, OCD). Making decisions is an
important part of everyday functioning. How we make those decisions is based on
what we perceive to be the most valuable or worthwhile actions. This is determined
by what we find to be the most reinforcing stimuli. So when teaching an
individual a response, you need to find the most potent reinforcer for that
person. This may be a larger reinforcer at a later time or a smaller immediate
reinforcer.
Classical
conditioning
The typical paradigm for classical conditioning
involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (which unfailingly evokes
a reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not
normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both
to the unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now
referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The response to the
conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned
response. The classic example is Pavlov and his dogs. Meat powder
naturally will make a dog salivate when it is put into a dog's mouth;
salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the
unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response
(UR). Then Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time
Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once
he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous
pairings of the bell and the food the dogs learned that the bell was a signal
that the food was about to come and began to salivate when the bell was rung.
Once this occurred, the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the
salivation to the bell became the conditioned response (CR).
Another influential person in the world of
Classical Conditioning is John B. Watson.
Watson's work was very influential and paved the way for B. F. Skinner's
radical behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism (and philosophy of science) stood in
direct contrast to Freud. Watson's view was that Freud's introspective method
was too subjective, and that we should limit the study of human development to
directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the article
"Psychology as the Behaviorist Views," in which he argued that
laboratory studies should serve psychology best as a science. Watson's most
famous, and controversial, experiment, "Little Albert," where he
demonstrated how psychologists can account for the learning of emotion through
classical conditioning principles.
Imprinting
Imprinting is the term used in psychology and ethology to
describe any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a
particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently
independent of the consequences of behavior. It was first used to describe
situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some
stimulus, which is therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject.
Observational
learning
The learning process most characteristic of humans
is imitation; one's personal repetition of an observed
behavior, such as a dance. Humans
can copy three types of information simultaneously: the demonstrator's goals,
actions, and environmental outcomes (results, see Emulation (observational learning)).
Through copying these types of information, (most) infants will tune into their
surrounding culture.
Play
Play generally describes behavior which has no
particular end in itself, but improves performance in similar situations in the
future. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is
mostly limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with a
ball of string when young, which gives them experience with catching prey.
Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members of their own
species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have
caught. Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased
vulnerability to predators and the
risk of injury and
possibly infection. It also
consumes energy, so
there must be significant benefits associated with play for it to have evolved.
Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning.
However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning,
for example improving physical fitness.
Enculturation
Enculturation is the
process by which a person learns the requirements of their native culture by
which he or she is surrounded, and acquires values and behaviors that are
appropriate or necessary in that culture.[8] The
influences which, as part of this process limit, direct or shape the
individual, whether deliberately or not, include parents, other adults, and
peers.[8] If
successful, enculturation results in competence in the language, values and
rituals of the culture. (compare acculturation, where a
person is within a culture different to their normal culture, and learns the
requirements of this different culture).
Episodic
learning
Episodic learning is a change in behavior that
occurs as a result of an event. For example, a fear of dogs that follows being
bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named because
events are recorded into episodic memory, which
is one of the three forms of explicit learning and retrieval, along with
perceptual memory and semantic memory.
Multimedia
learning
Multimedia learning is where a person uses both auditory and visual
stimuli to learn information (Mayer 2001). This
type of learning relies on dual-coding theory (Paivio 1971).
E-learning
and augmented learning
Electronic learning or e-learning is a general term used to refer to Internet-based networked
computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-learning is mobile learning
(m-learning), which uses different mobile telecommunication equipment, such as cellular phones.
When a learner interacts with the e-learning
environment, it's called augmented learning. By adapting to the needs of individuals, the
context-driven instruction can be dynamically tailored to the learner's natural
environment. Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, audio
(music and voice). By personalizing instruction, augmented learning has been
shown to improve learning performance for a lifetime. See also Minimally Invasive Education.
Rote
learning
Rote learning is a technique which avoids
understanding the inner complexities and inferences of the subject that is
being learned and instead focuses on memorizing the
material so that it can be recalled by the
learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major practice involved in
rote learning techniques is learning
by repetition, based on the idea that one will be able to quickly recall
the meaning of the material the more it is repeated. Rote learning is used in
diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Although it has been
criticized by some schools of thought, rote learning is a necessity in many
situations.
Meaningful
learning
Meaningful learning refers to the concept that the
learned knowledge (let's say a fact) is fully understood by the individual and
that the individual knows how that specific fact relates to other stored facts
(stored in your brain that is). For understanding this concept, it is good to
contrast meaningful learning with the much less desirable, rote learning. Rote
learning requires only that the individual remembers the information without
any regard for understanding, in other words learning by rote allows the
individual to recite facts without truly understanding them. Meaningful
learning, on the other hand, implies there is a comprehensive knowledge of the
context of the facts learned.
Informal
learning
Informal learning occurs through the experience of
day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking
because of the danger inherent in not paying attention to where one is going).
It is learning from life, during a meal at table with parents, play,
exploring, etc.
Formal
learning
Formal learning is learning that takes place within
a teacher-student relationship, such as in a school system.
Nonformal
learning
Nonformal learning is organized learning outside
the formal learning system. For example: learning by coming together with
people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in
(international) youth organizations, workshops.
NONFORMAL
LEARNING AND COMBINED APPROACHES
The educational system may use a combination of
formal, informal, and nonformal learning methods. The UN and EU recognize these
different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools students can get
points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in
informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international
youth workshops and training courses, on the condition they prepare,
contribute, share and can prove this offered valuable new insight, helped to
acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching, etc.
In order to learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik's Cube quickly,
several factors come into play at once:
- Directions help one learn the patterns of solving a Rubik's Cube.
- Practicing the moves repeatedly and for extended time helps with "muscle memory" and therefore speed.
- Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which in turn helps to speed up future attempts.
- The Rubik's Cube's six colors help anchor solving it within the head.
- Occasionally revisiting the cube helps prevent negative learning or loss of skill.
Tangential
learning
Tangential learning is the process by which people
will self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in a context that they already
enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people may be
motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show
that references Faust and Lovecraft, some people may be inspired to read the
original work. Self-education can be improved with systematization. According
to experts in natural learning, self-oriented learning training has proven to
be an effective tool for assisting independent learners with the natural phases
of learning.
Dialogic
learning
Dialogic learning is a type of learning based on
dialogue.
Benjamin Bloom has
suggested three domains of learning:
- Cognitive – To recall, calculate, discuss, analyze, problem solve, etc.
- Psychomotor – To dance, swim, ski, dive, drive a car, ride a bike, etc.
- Affective – To like something or someone, love, appreciate, fear, hate, worship, etc.
These domains are not mutually exclusive. For
example, in learning to play chess, the
person will have to learn the rules of the game (cognitive domain); but he also
has to learn how to set up the chess pieces on the chessboard and also how to
properly hold and move a chess piece (psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the
game the person may even learn to love the game itself, value its applications
in life, and appreciate its history
(affective domain).
TRANSFER
OF LEARNING
The transfer of learning can be defined as
extending what has been learned in one context to new contexts. Determining if
and to what extent a person can transfer their learned knowledge can be a
strong indication of the quality of the learning experience itself. Effective
memorization of information does not equal a meaningful learning experience,
because the knowledge acquired might not be understood. The ability to
understand and apply learnings, implies a deeper knowledge gained. The context
of the original learning, time given to learn, motivation of learner, active
participation, and progress monitoring of learning are all important factors
that effect the degree to which learning is transferrable. Experts have found
that learner-responsible learning is an effective way to educate learners. As a
result, educators should focus on increasing the role of individual learners in
education. New research within cognitive science has helped unfold the
multidisciplinary nature of learning. Anthropology, linguistics, philosophy,
psychology and neuroscience all play a role in learning. More importantly,
these factors play a role in the level of understanding one person develops
versus another person.
Active
learning
Active learning occurs when a person takes control
of their learning experience. Since understanding information is the key aspect
of learning, it is important for learners to recognize what they understand and
what they do not. By doing so, they can monitor their own mastery of subjects.
Active learning encourages learners to have an internal dialogue in which they
are verbalizing their understandings. This and other meta-cognitive strategies
can be taught to a child over time. Studies within metacognition have
proven the value in active learning, claiming that the learning is usually at a
stronger level as a result. In addition, learners have more incentive to learn
when they have control over not only how they learn but also what they learn.
REFERENCE
1.
Wood, D.C. (1988). Habituation in Stentor produced by mechanoreceptor
channel modification. Journal of
Neuroscience, 2254 (8).
2.
Bitterman et al. 1983. Classical Conditioning of
Proboscis Extension in Honeybees (Apis
mellifera). J. Comp. Psych. 97: 107-119.
3.
Tsakanikos, E. (2006). Associative learning and
perceptual style: are associated events perceived analytically or as a whole? Personality and Individual Differences,
40, 579-586. [1]
4.
Grusec, Joan E.; Hastings, Paul D. "Handbook
of Socialization: Theory and Research", 2007, Guilford Press; ISBN 1-59385-332-7, ISBN 978-1-59385-332-7; at page
547.
5.
Terry, W. S. (2006). Learning and Memory: Basic
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6.
Baars, B. J. & Gage, N. M. (2007). Cognition,
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Elsevier Ltd.
7.
Augmented Learning, Augmented Learning:
Context-Aware Mobile Augmented Reality Architecture for Learning
10.
J. Scott Armstrong (1979). "The Natural Learning
Project". Journal
of Experiential Learning and Simulation 1: 5–12.
12.
J. Scott Armstrong (1983). "Learner Responsibility in
Management Education, or Ventures into Forbidden Research (with Comments)". Academy of Management Review 13:
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J. Scott Armstrong (1983). "Book Review: Intentional
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14.
[(Bransford,
2000, pg.51-78)]
15.
[(Bransford,
2000, pg.15-20)]
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J. Scott Armstrong (2012). "Natural Learning in
Higher Education". Encyclopedia
of the Sciences of Learning.
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Rogers, Carl. (1969). Freedom to Learn: A View of
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